Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in sediments in Africa: Status, ecological risks, extraction and analytical techniques

This review synthesized literature (2012–2024) about the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in sediments from waterbodies in Africa while highlighting the sources and analytical techniques used. A total of 35 PPCP classes constituting 142 compounds were identified. Eastern Africa reported 21 classes with 60 compounds, Western Africa 17 classes with 69 compounds, Southern Africa 18 classes with 19 compounds, and Northern Africa 1 class with 19 compounds. Publications were scarce in Central and Northern Africa, with most studies reported in Western Africa. Ultrasonic extraction coupled with Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) was the most frequently used sample preparation technique due to its efficiency, cost-effectiveness, simplicity, high recovery rates and ability to extract a wide range of PPCPs. The most frequently used analytical technique was LC-MS/MS due to its superior sensitivity, selectivity, and ability to detect PPCPs at trace levels. The concentration of PPCPs in sediments from waterbodies in Africa ranged from <LOD to 28,580 μg/kg dry weight (d.w). Diclofenac was the most predominant PPCP in Africa. In general, the risk quotient (RQ) values were ≥1 suggesting potential ecological risks to benthic and sediment dwelling organisms. Inconsistent reporting formats and limited temporal monitoring data in Central and Northern Africa hindered inter-continental and inter-regional comparisons. African governments should prioritize research and allocate research funds, invest in analytical infrastructure, strengthen policy and regulatory frameworks, and promote public awareness in the proper disposal and management of waste to mitigate the ecological risks associated with PPCP contamination.

Graphical abstract